CHAPTER 2 AN INTRODUCTION TO COST TERMS AND PURPOSES 2-1 A cost object is anything for which a separate measurement of costs is desired. Examples include a product, a service, a project, a customer, a brand category, an activity, and a department. Direct costs of a cost object are related to the particular cost object and can be traced to 2-2 that cost object in an economically feasible (cost-effective) way. Indirect costs of a cost object are related to the particular cost object but cannot be traced to that cost object in an economically feasible (cost-effective) way. Cost assignment is a general term that encompasses the assignment of both direct costs and indirect costs to a cost object. Direct costs are traced to a cost object while indirect costs are allocated to a cost object. Managers believe that costs that are traced to a particular cost object are more accurately 2-3 assigned to that cost object than are allocated costs. When costs are allocated, managers are less certain whether the cost allocation base accurately measures the resources demanded by a cost object. Managers prefer to use more accurate costs in their decisions. 2-4
Factors affecting the classification of a cost as direct or indirect include • the materiality of the cost in question, • available information-gathering technology, • design of operations, and • contractual arrangements.
2-5 A variable cost changes in total in proportion to changes in the related level of total activity or volume. An example is a sales commission that is a percentage of each sales revenue dollar. A fixed cost remains unchanged in total for a given time period, despite wide changes in the related level of total activity or volume. An example is the leasing cost of a machine that is unchanged for a given time period (such as a year). 2-6 A cost driver is a variable, such as the level of activity or volume, which causally affects total costs over a given time span. A change in the cost driver results in a change in the level of total costs. For example, the number of vehicles assembled is a driver of the costs of steering wheels on a motor-vehicle assembly line. 2-7 The relevant range is the band of normal activity level or volume in which there is a specific relationship between the level of activity or volume and the cost in question. Costs are described as variable or fixed with respect to a particular relevant range. A unit cost is computed by dividing some amount of total costs (the numerator) by the 2-8 related number of units (the denominator). In many cases, the numerator will include a fixed cost that will not change despite changes in the denominator. It is erroneous in those cases to multiply the unit cost by activity or volume change to predict changes in total costs at different activity or volume levels.
2-1
2-9 Manufacturing-sector companies purchase materials and components and convert them into various finished goods, for example automotive and textile companies. Merchandising-sector companies purchase and then sell tangible products without changing their basic form, for example retailing or distribution. Service-sector companies provide services or intangible products to their customers, for example, legal advice or audits. 2-10 Manufacturing companies typically have one or more of the following three types of inventory: 1. Direct materials inventory. Direct materials in stock and awaiting use in the manufacturing process. 2. Work-in-process inventory. Goods partially worked on but not yet completed. Also called work in progress. 3. Finished goods inventory. Goods completed but not yet sold. 2-11 Inventoriable costs are all costs of a product that are considered as assets in the balance sheet when they are incurred and that become cost of goods sold when the product is sold. These costs are included in work-in-process and finished goods inventory (they are “inventoried”) to accumulate the costs of creating these assets. Period costs are all costs in the income statement other than cost of goods sold. These costs are treated as expenses of the accounting period in which they are incurred because they are expected not to benefit future periods (because there is not sufficient evidence to conclude that such benefit exists). Expensing these costs immediately best matches expenses to revenues. 2-12
No. Service sector companies have no inventories and, hence, no inventoriable costs.
2-13 Direct material costs are the acquisition costs of all materials that eventually become part of the cost object (work in process and then finished goods), and that can be traced to the cost object in an economically feasible way. Direct manufacturing labor costs include the compensation of all manufacturing labor that can be traced to the cost object (work in process and then finished goods) in an economically feasible way. Manufacturing overhead costs are all manufacturing costs that are related to the cost object (work in process and then finished goods), but that cannot be traced to that cost object in an economically feasible way. Prime costs are all direct manufacturing costs (direct material and direct manufacturing labor). Conversion costs are all manufacturing costs other than direct material costs. 2-14 Overtime premium is the wage rate paid to workers (for both direct labor and indirect labor) in excess of their straight-time wage rates. Idle time is a subclassification of indirect labor that represents wages paid for unproductive time caused by lack of orders, machine breakdowns, material shortages, poor scheduling, and the like.
2-2
2-15 A product cost is the sum of the costs assigned to a product for a specific purpose. Purposes for computing a product cost include • pricing and product mix decisions, • contracting with government agencies, and • preparing financial statements for external reporting under generally accepted accounting principles. 2-16
(15 min.) Computing and interpreting manufacturing unit costs.
1. Direct material cost Direct manuf. labor costs Indirect manuf. costs Total manuf. costs Fixed costs allocated at a rate of $20M ÷ $50M (direct mfg. labor) equal to $0.40 per dir. manuf. labor dollar (0.40 × $14; 28; 8) Variable costs Units produced (millions) Cost per unit (Total manuf. costs ÷ units produced) Variable manuf. cost per unit (Variable manuf. costs ÷ Units produced)
2.
Based on total manuf. cost per unit ($1.75 × 120; $1.3833 × 160; $0.94 × 180) Correct total manuf. costs based on variable manuf. costs plus fixed costs equal Variable costs ($1.68 × 120; $1.29 × 160; $0.908 × 180) Fixed costs Total costs
Supreme $ 84.00 14.00 42.00 $140.00
(in millions) Deluxe $ 54.00 28.00 84.00 $166.00
Regular $ 62.00 8.00 24.00 $ 94.00
Total $200.00 50.00 150.00 $400.00
5.60 $134.40 80
11.20 $154.80 120
3.20 $ 90.80 100
20.00 $380.00
$1.7500
$1.3833
$0.9400
$1.6800
$1.2900
$0.9080
Supreme
(in millions) Deluxe
Regular
Total
$210.00
$221.33
$169.20
$600.53
$201.60
$206.40
$163.44
$571.44 20.00 $591.44
The total manufacturing cost per unit in requirement 1 includes $20 million of indirect manufacturing costs that are fixed irrespective of changes in the volume of output per month, while the remaining variable indirect manufacturing costs change with the production volume. Given the unit volume changes for August 2007, the use of total manufacturing cost per unit from the past month at a different unit volume level (both in aggregate and at the individual product level) will yield incorrect estimates of total costs of $600.53 million in August 2007 relative to the correct total manufacturing costs of $591.44 million calculated using variable manufacturing cost per unit times units produced plus the fixed costs of $20 million.
2-3
2-17
(15 min.) Direct and indirect costs, effect of changing the classification of a cost item (continuation of 2-16).
1. MOP’s managers might prefer that energy costs be directly traced to various products because in general, the greater the proportion of economically traceable costs, the more accurate will be the estimated cost of each cost object and hence the better the managerial decisions (like product pricing) based on those cost estimates. Since energy costs were substantial ($90 million out of $150 million of manufacturing overhead), tracing them directly to cost objects would significantly increase the accuracy of the cost estimates. 2. Direct materials costs Direct manufacturing labor costs Direct energy costs Other manufacturing overhead costs Total manufacturing costs
Supreme $ 84.0 14.0 39.8 16.8 $154.6
(in millions) Deluxe Regular $ 54.0 $62.0 28.0 8.0 40.7 9.5 33.6 9.6 $156.3 $89.1
Units produced (millions) Cost per unit
80 $ 1.93
120 $ 1.30
100 $0.89
Cost per unit (before analysis) Cost per unit (after analysis) Effect of analysis on cost per unit
$1.75 $1.93 higher
$ 1.38 $ 1.30 lower
$0.94 $0.89 lower
3.
Before Shore’s analysis, the Deluxe and Regular product lines were being overcosted and the Supreme line was being undercosted. Shore’s analysis resulted in $60 million of the $150 million of “overhead costs” becoming directly traceable to products. It showed that the Supreme line consumes the most energy relative to the volume of production. With more accurate direct costs, and therefore a more accurate allocation of the overheads of $60 million, Supreme’s cost per unit is more than in the old cost system, while the cost per unit of Deluxe and Regular is less than in the old cost system.
2-4
2-18
(15–20 min.) Classification of costs, service sector.
Cost object: Each individual focus group Cost variability: With respect to the number of focus groups There may be some debate over classifications of individual items, especially with regard to cost variability. Cost Item A B C D E F G H
D or I D I I I D I D I
V or F V F Va F V F V Vb
a Some students will note that phone call costs are variable when each call has a separate charge. It may be a fixed cost if Consumer Focus has a flat monthly charge for a line, irrespective of the amount of usage. b Gasoline costs are likely to vary with the number of focus groups. However, vehicles likely serve multiple purposes, and detailed records may be required to examine how costs vary with changes in one of the many purposes served.
2-19
(15–20 min.) Classification of costs, merchandising sector.
Cost object: Videos sold in video section of store Cost variability: With respect to changes in the number of videos sold There may be some debate over classifications of individual items, especially with regard to cost variability. Cost Item A B C D E F G H
D or I D I D D I I I D
2-5
V or F F F V F F V F V
2-20
(15–20 min.) Classification of costs, manufacturing sector.
Cost object: Type of car assembled (Corolla or Geo Prism) Cost variability: With respect to changes in the number of cars assembled There may be some debate over classifications of individual items, especially with regard to cost variability. Cost Item A B C D E F G H
2-21
D or I D I D D D I D I
V or F V F F F V V V F
(20 min.) Variable costs, fixed costs, total costs.
1. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 480 500 550 Minutes/month Plan A ($/month) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 48.00 50 55 Plan B ($/month) 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 21 24 27 28.80 30 33 Plan C ($/month) 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24.00 25 27.5
600 650 60 65 36 39 30 32.5
Monthly total cost
70 60 50 Plan A
40
Plan B
30
Plan C
20 10 0 0
50
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 480 500 550 600 650 Monthly long-distance minutes
2. In each region, Compo chooses the plan that has the lowest cost. From the graph (or from calculations), we can see that if Compo expects to use 0–180 minutes of long-distance each month, she should buy Plan A; for 180–400 minutes, Plan B; and for over 400 minutes, Plan C. If Compo plans to make 100 minutes of long-distance calls each month, she should choose Plan A; for 200 minutes, choose Plan B; for 500 minutes, choose Plan C.
2-6
2-22 1.
(15–20 min.) Variable costs and fixed costs. Variable cost per ton of beach sand mined Subcontractor $ 80 per ton Government tax 50 per ton Total $130 per ton Fixed costs per month 0 to 100 tons of capacity per day 101 to 200 tons of capacity per day 201 to 300 tons of capacity per day
= = =
$150,000 $300,000 $450,000
2. $450,000 Costs $300,000
$650,000
Tota l Fixed
Tota l Va riable C osts
$975,000
$325,000
2,500
5,000
$150,000
100
7,500
Tons Mine d
200
300
Tons of Cap acity p er Day
The concept of relevant range is potentially relevant for both graphs. However, the question does not place restrictions on the unit variable costs. The relevant range for the total fixed costs is from 0 to 100 tons; 101 to 200 tons; 201 to 300 tons, and so on. Within these ranges, the total fixed costs do not change in total. 3. Tons Mined per Day (1) (a) 180 (b) 220
Tons Mined per Month (2) = (1) × 25 4,500
Fixed Unit Cost per Ton (3) = FC ÷ (2) $300,000 ÷ 4,500 = $66.67
Variable Unit Cost per Ton (4) $130
Total Unit Cost per Ton (5) = (3) + (4) $196.67
5,500
$450,000 ÷ 5,500 = $81.82
$130
$211.82
The unit cost for 220 tons mined per day is $211.82, while for 180 tons it is only $196.67. This difference is caused by the fixed cost increment from 101 to 200 tons being spread over an increment of 80 tons, while the fixed cost increment from 201 to 300 tons is spread over an increment of only 20 tons.
2-7
2-23
(15 min)
Cost drivers and the value chain.
1. Business Function Production Research and development Marketing Distribution Design of products/processes Customer service
•
Representative Cost Driver Hours the Tylenol packaging line is in operation Number of patents filed with U.S. Patent office Minutes of TV advertising time on “60 Minutes” Number of packages shipped Hours spent designing tamper-proof bottles Number of calls to toll-free customer phone line
• • • • • • • • • • • •
Representative Cost Driver Hours of laboratory work Number of new drugs in development Number of focus groups on alternative package designs Hours of process engineering work Number of units packaged Number of tablets manufactured Number of promotion packages mailed Number of sales personnel Weight of packages shipped Number of supermarkets on delivery route Number of units of a product recalled Number of personnel on toll-free customer phone lines
• • • • •
2. Business Function Research and development Design of products/processes Production Marketing Distribution Customer service
2-24
(10–15 min.) Cost drivers and functions.
1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Function Accounting Personnel Data Processing Research and Development Purchasing Billing
Representative Cost Driver Number of transactions processed Number of new hires Hours of computer processing unit (CPU) Number of research scientists Number of purchase orders Number of invoices sent
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Function Accounting Personnel Data Processing Research and Development Purchasing Billing
Representative Cost Driver Hours of technical work Number of employees Number of computer transactions Number of new products being developed Number of different types of materials purchased Number of credit sales transactions
2.
2-8
2-25
(20 min.) Total costs and unit costs
1. Number of attendees 0 Variable cost per person ($10 caterer charge – $5 student door fee) $5 Fixed Costs $1,500 Variable costs (number of attendees x variable cost per person) 0 Total costs (fixed + variable) $1,500
100
200
300
400
500
600
$5 $1,500
$5 $1,500
$5 $1,500
$5 $1,500
$5 $1,500
$5 $1,500
500 $2,000
1,000 $2,500
1,500 $3,000
2,000 $3,500
2,500 $4,000
3,000 $4,500
Fixed, Variable and Total Cost of Graduation Party
Costs ($)
5000 4000 Fixed Costs
3000
Variable Cost
2000
Total Cost
1000 0 0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Number of attendees
2. Number of attendees Total costs (fixed + variable) Costs per attendee (total costs ÷ number of attendees)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
$1,500
$2,000
$2,500
$3,000
$3,500
$4,000
$4,500
$20.00
$12.50
$10.00
$ 8.75
$ 8.00
$ 7.50
As shown in the table above, for 100 attendees the total cost will be $2,000 and the cost per attendee will be $20. 3. As shown in the table in requirement 2, for 500 attendees the total cost will be $4,000 and the cost per attendee will be $8.
2-9
4. Using the calculations shown in the table in requirement 2, we can construct the cost-perattendee graph shown below:
Cost per Attendee ($)
$21.00 $19.00 $17.00 $15.00 $13.00 $11.00 $9.00 $7.00 0
100
200
300 400 500 Number of Attendees
600
700
As president of the student association requesting a grant for the party, you should not use the per unit calculations to make your case. The person making the grant may assume an attendance of 500 students and use a low number like $8 per attendee to calculate the size of your grant. Instead, you should emphasize the fixed cost of $1,500 that you will incur even if no students or very few students attend the party, and try to get a grant to cover as much of the fixed costs as possible as well as a variable portion to cover as much of the $5 variable cost to the student association for each person attending the party.
2-10
2-26
(15 min.) Total costs and unit costs.
1. (a) $100,000 ÷ 2,000 = $50.00 per package (b) $100,000 ÷ 6,000 = $16.67 per package (c) $100,000 ÷ 10,000 = $10.00 per package (d)[$100,000 + (10,000 × $8)] ÷ 20,000 = $180,000 ÷ 20,000 = $9.00 per package The unit cost to ECG decreases on a per-unit base due to the first $100,000 payment being a fixed cost. The $8 amount per package beyond 10,000 units is a variable cost. The cost function is
$300,000
$260,000 $180,000
Total Costs
Formatted: Font: 11 pt
$200,000
Formatted: Font: 11 pt
$100,000 $100,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
Packages Sold
ECG should not use any of the unit costs in requirement 1 when predicting total costs. Up to 10,000 units, the total cost is a fixed amount. Beyond 10,000 units, the total cost is a combination of a fixed amount plus a per-unit (beyond 10,000 unit) variable amount. The total costs at different volume levels cannot be predicted by using the unit cost at a specific volume level. The total cost should be predicted by combining the total fixed costs and total variable costs rather than multiplying a unit cost amount by the predicted number of packages sold.
2-11
Formatted: Font: 11 pt
2-27
(20–30 min.) Inventoriable costs versus period costs.
1. Manufacturing-sector companies purchase materials and components and convert them into different finished goods. Merchandising-sector companies purchase and then sell tangible products without changing their basic form. Service-sector companies provide services or intangible products to their customers—for example, legal advice or audits. Only manufacturing and merchandising companies have inventories of goods for sale. 2. Inventoriable costs are all costs of a product that are regarded as an asset when they are incurred and then become cost of goods sold when the product is sold. These costs for a manufacturing company are included in work-in-process and finished goods inventory (they are “inventoried”) to build up the costs of creating these assets. Period costs are all costs in the income statement other than cost of goods sold. These costs are treated as expenses of the period in which they are incurred because they are presumed not to benefit future periods (or because there is not sufficient evidence to conclude that such benefit exists). Expensing these costs immediately best matches expenses to revenues. 3. (a) Mineral water purchased for resale by Safeway—inventoriable cost of a merchandising company. It becomes part of cost of goods sold when the mineral water is sold. (b) Electricity used at GE assembly plant—inventoriable cost of a manufacturing company. It is part of the manufacturing overhead that is included in the manufacturing cost of a refrigerator finished good. (c) Depreciation on Google’s computer equipment—period cost of a service company. Google has no inventory of goods for sale and, hence, no inventoriable cost. (d) Electricity for Safeway’s store aisles—period cost of a merchandising company. It is a cost that benefits the current period and it is not traceable to goods purchased for resale. (e) Depreciation on GE’s assembly testing equipment—inventoriable cost of a manufacturing company. It is part of the manufacturing overhead that is included in the manufacturing cost of a refrigerator finished good. (f) Salaries of Safeway’s marketing personnel—period cost of a merchandising company. It is a cost that is not traceable to goods purchased for resale. It is presumed not to benefit future periods (or at least not to have sufficiently reliable evidence to estimate such future benefits). (g) Bottled water consumed by Google’s engineers—period cost of a service company. Google has no inventory of goods for sale and, hence, no inventoriable cost. (h) Salaries of Google’s marketing personnel—period cost of a service company. Google has no inventory of goods for sale and, hence, no inventoriable cost.
2-12
2-28
(20 min.) Flow of Inventoriable Costs.
(All numbers below are in millions). 1. Direct materials inventory 8/1/2007 Direct materials purchased Direct materials available for production Direct materials used Direct materials inventory 8/31/2007
$
$
90 360 450 375 75
2. Total manufacturing overhead costs Subtract: Variable manufacturing overhead costs Fixed manufacturing overhead costs
$
3. Total manufacturing costs Subtract: Direct materials used (from requirement 1) Total manufacturing overhead costs Direct manufacturing labor costs
$ 1,600 (375) (480) $ 745
4. Work-in-process inventory 8/1/2007 Total manufacturing costs Work-in-process available for production Subtract: Cost of goods manufactured (moved into FG) Work-in-process inventory 8/31/2007 5. Finished goods inventory 8/1/2007 Cost of goods manufactured (moved from WIP) Finished goods available for sale in August 6. Finished goods available for sale in August (from requirement 5) Subtract: Cost of goods sold Finished goods inventory 8/31/2007
2-13
$
480 (250) 230
$
200 1,600 1,800 (1,650) $ 150
$
125 1,650 $ 1,775
$ 1,775 (1,700) $ 75
2-29
(20 min.) Computing cost of goods purchased and cost of goods sold.
(a)
Marvin Department Store Schedule of Cost of Goods Purchased For the Year Ended December 31, 2007 (in thousands)
Purchases Add transportation-in
$155,000 7,000 162,000
Deduct: Purchase return and allowances Purchase discounts Cost of goods purchased (b)
$4,000 6,000
10,000 $152,000
Marvin Department Store Schedule of Cost of Goods Sold For the Year Ended December 31, 2007 (in thousands)
Beginning merchandise inventory 1/1/2007 Cost of goods purchased (above) Cost of goods available for sale Ending merchandise inventory 12/31/2007 Cost of goods sold
$ 27,000 152,000 179,000 34,000 $145,000
2-14
2-30
(30–40 min.) Cost of goods manufactured. Canseco Company Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured Year Ended December 31, 2007 (in thousands)
Direct materials: Beginning inventory, January 1, 2007 $ 22,000 Purchases of direct materials 75,000 Cost of direct materials available for use 97,000 Ending inventory, December 31, 2007 26,000 Direct materials used Direct manufacturing labor Indirect manufacturing costs: Indirect manufacturing labor 15,000 Plant insurance 9,000 Depreciation—plant building & equipment 11,000 Repairs and maintenance—plant 4,000 Total indirect manufacturing costs Manufacturing costs incurred during 2007 Add beginning work-in-process inventory, January 1, 2007 Total manufacturing costs to account for Deduct ending work-in-process inventory, December 31, 2007 Cost of goods manufactured (to Income Statement)
$ 71,000 25,000
39,000 135,000 21,000 156,000 20,000 $136,000
Canseco Company Income Statement Year Ended December 31, 2007 (in thousands) Revenues Cost of goods sold: Beginning finished goods, January 1, 2007 Cost of goods manufactured Cost of goods available for sale Ending finished goods, December 31, 2007 Cost of goods sold Gross margin Operating costs: Marketing, distribution, and customer-service costs General and administrative costs Total operating costs Operating income
2-15
$300,000 $ 18,000 136,000 154,000 23,000 131,000 169,000 93,000 29,000 122,000 $ 47,000
2-31
(25–30 min.) Income statement and schedule of cost of goods manufactured. Howell Corporation Income Statement for the Year Ended December 31, 2007 (in millions)
Revenues Cost of goods sold: Beginning finished goods, Jan. 1, 2007 Cost of goods manufactured (below) Cost of goods available for sale Ending finished goods, Dec. 31, 2007 Gross margin Marketing, distribution, and customer-service costs Operating income
$950 $ 70 645 715 55
660 290 240 $ 50
Howell Corporation Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured for the Year Ended December 31, 2007 (in millions) Direct materials costs: Beginning inventory, Jan. 1, 2007 Purchases of direct materials Cost of direct materials available for use Ending inventory, Dec. 31, 2007 Direct materials used Direct manufacturing labor costs Indirect manufacturing costs: Indirect manufacturing labor Plant supplies used Plant utilities Depreciation––plant, building, and equipment Plant supervisory salaries Miscellaneous plant overhead Manufacturing costs incurred during 2007 Add beginning work-in-process inventory, Jan. 1, 2007 Total manufacturing costs to account for Deduct ending work-in-process, Dec. 31, 2007 Cost of goods manufactured
2-16
$ 15 325 340 20 $320 100 60 10 30 80 5 35
220 640 10 650 5 $645
2-32
(15–20 min.)
Interpretation of statements (continuation of 2-31).
1. The schedule in 2-31 can become a Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured and Sold simply by including the beginning and ending finished goods inventory figures in the supporting schedule, rather than directly in the body of the income statement. Note that the term cost of goods manufactured refers to the cost of goods brought to completion (finished) during the accounting period, whether they were started before or during the current accounting period. Some of the manufacturing costs incurred are held back as costs of the ending work in process; similarly, the costs of the beginning work in process inventory become a part of the cost of goods manufactured for 2007. 2. The sales manager’s salary would be charged as a marketing cost as incurred by both manufacturing and merchandising companies. It is basically an operating cost that appears below the gross margin line on an income statement. In contrast, an assembler’s wages would be assigned to the products worked on. Thus, the wages cost would be charged to Work in process and would not be expensed until the product is transferred through Finished Goods Inventory to Cost of Goods Sold as the product is sold. 3. The direct-indirect distinction can be resolved only with respect to a particular cost object. For example, in defense contracting, the cost object may be defined as a contract. Then, a plant supervisor working only on that contract will have his or her salary charged directly and wholly to that single contract. 4.
Direct materials used = $320,000,000 ÷ 1,000,000 units = $320 per unit Depreciation = $ 80,000,000 ÷ 1,000,000 units = $ 80 per unit
5. Direct materials unit cost would be unchanged at $320 per unit. Depreciation cost per unit would be $80,000,000 ÷ 1,200,000 = $66.67 per unit. Total direct materials costs would rise by 20% to $384,000,000 ($320 per unit × 1,200,000 units), whereas total depreciation would be unaffected at $80,000,000. 6. Unit costs are averages, and they must be interpreted with caution. The $320 direct materials unit cost is valid for predicting total costs because direct materials is a variable cost; total direct materials costs indeed change as output levels change. However, fixed costs like depreciation must be interpreted quite differently from variable costs. A common error in cost analysis is to regard all unit costs as one—as if all the total costs to which they are related are variable costs. Changes in output levels (the denominator) will affect total variable costs, but not total fixed costs. Graphs of the two costs may clarify this point; it is safer to think in terms of total costs rather than in terms of unit costs.
2-17
2-33
(25–30 min.) Income statement and schedule of cost of goods manufactured. Chan Corporation Income Statement for the Year Ended December 31, 2007 (in millions)
Revenues Cost of goods sold: Beginning finished goods, Jan. 1, 2007 Cost of goods manufactured (below) Cost of goods available for sale Ending finished goods, Dec. 31, 2007 Gross margin Marketing, distribution, and customer-service costs Operating income
$350 $ 40 204 244 12
232 118 90 $ 28
Chan Corporation Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured for the Year Ended December 31, 2007 (in millions) Direct material costs: Beginning inventory, Jan. 1, 2007 Direct materials purchased Cost of direct materials available for use Ending inventory, Dec. 31, 2007 Direct materials used Direct manufacturing labor costs Indirect manufacturing costs: Plant supplies used Property taxes on plant Plant utilities Indirect manufacturing labor costs Depreciation––plant, building, and equipment Miscellaneous manufacturing overhead costs Manufacturing costs incurred during 2007 Add beginning work-in-process inventory, Jan. 1, 2007 Total manufacturing costs to account for Deduct ending work-in-process inventory, Dec. 31, 2007 Cost of goods manufactured (to income statement)
2-18
$ 30 80 110 5 $105 40 6 1 5 20 9 10
51 196 10 206 2 $204
2-34 1.
2.
(15–20 min.) Terminology, interpretation of statements (continuation of 2-33). Direct materials used Direct manufacturing labor costs Prime costs
$105 million 40 million $145 million
Direct manufacturing labor costs Indirect manufacturing costs Conversion costs
$ 40 million 51 million $ 91 million
Inventoriable costs (in millions) for Year 2007 Plant utilities Indirect manufacturing labor Depreciation—plant, building, and equipment Miscellaneous manufacturing overhead Direct materials used Direct manufacturing labor Plant supplies used Property tax on plant Total inventoriable costs Period costs (in millions) for Year 2007 Marketing, distribution, and customer-service costs
$
5 20 9 10 105 40 6 1 $196 $ 90
3. Design costs and R&D costs may be regarded as product costs in case of contracting with a governmental agency. For example, if the Air Force negotiated to contract with Lockheed to build a new type of supersonic fighter plane, design costs and R&D costs may be included in the contract as product costs. 4.
Direct materials used = $105,000,000 ÷ 1,000,000 units = $105 per unit Depreciation = $ 9,000,000 ÷ 1,000,000 units = $ 9 per unit
5. Direct materials unit cost would be unchanged at $105. Depreciation unit cost would be $9,000,000 ÷ 1,500,000 = $6 per unit. Total direct materials costs would rise by 50% to $157,500,000 ($105 per unit × 1,500,000 units). Total depreciation cost of $9,000,000 would remain unchanged. 6. In this case, equipment depreciation is a variable cost in relation to the unit output. The amount of equipment depreciation will change in direct proportion to the number of units produced. (a) Depreciation will be $4 million (1 million × $4) when 1 million units are produced. (b) Depreciation will be $6 million (1.5 million × $4) when 1.5 million units are produced.
2-19
2-35
(20 min.) Overtime premium.
The Westec and Pinnacle orders consumed a total of $100,000 in labor costs: $80,000 (4,000 labor hours × $20 per labor hour) in straight direct labor costs and $20,000 (2,000 overtime labor hours × $20 per labor hour × 50% overtime premium rate). The straight direct labor costs are to be split equally between the two orders since each consumed 2,000 direct labor hours. The costs of overtime premiums are allocated differently under different scenarios.
1. (in $000s) Customer Sales Representative Revenues Cost of goods sold: Direct materials Direct manufacturing labor Indirect manufacturing labor Overtime premium Total cost of goods sold Gross margin Bonus earned by salesperson (10% of gross margin)
PANEL 1 Westec caused rush order Westec Pinnacle I. Blacklaw G. Benson $420,000 $460,000 $230,000 40,000 80,000 20,000
$260,000 40,000 80,000 370,000 $ 50,000
380,000 $ 80,000
$
$ 8,000
5,000
2. PANEL 2 (in $000s) Pinnacle caused rush order Customer Westec Pinnacle Sales Representative I. Blacklaw G. Benson Revenues $420,000 $460,000 Cost of goods sold: Direct materials $230,000 $260,000 Direct manufacturing labor 40,000 40,000 Indirect manufacturing labor 80,000 80,000 Overtime premium 20,000 Total cost of goods sold 350,000 400,000 Gross margin $ 70,000 $ 60,000 Bonus earned by salesperson $ 7,000 $ 6,000 (10% of gross margin)
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3. PANEL 3 (in $000s) Neither caused rush order Customer Westec Pinnacle Sales Representative I. Blacklaw G. Benson Revenues $420,000 $460,000 Cost of goods sold: Direct materials $230,000 $260,000 Direct manufacturing labor 40,000 40,000 Indirect manufacturing labor 80,000 80,000 Overtime premium 10,000 10,000 Total cost of goods sold 360,000 390,000 Gross margin $ 60,000 $ 70,000 Bonus earned by salesperson $ 6,000 $ 7,000 (10% of gross margin) 4. Gary Shaw, the operations manager realizes that when there is overtime, which order or orders it is assigned to will make a significant difference to the sales bonuses earned by Blacklaw and Benson (see bonuses earned by salespeople in the calculations above). He needs to track the flow of orders and overtime very carefully in order to avoid problems in the future. He must always be very precise and fair in assigning overtime to various orders.
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(30–40 min.) Fire loss, computing inventory costs.
1. 2. 3.
Finished goods inventory, 2/26/2007 = $50,000 Work-in-process inventory, 2/26/2007 = $28,000 Direct materials inventory, 2/26/2007 = $62,000
This problem is not as easy as it first appears. These answers are obtained by working from the known figures to the unknowns in the schedule below. The basic relationships between categories of costs are: Prime costs (given) = $294,000 Direct materials used = $294,000 – Direct manufacturing labor costs = $294,000 – $180,000 = $114,000 Conversion costs = Direct manufacturing labor costs ÷ 0.6 $180,000 ÷ 0.6 = $300,000 Indirect manuf. costs = $300,000 – $180,000 = $120,000 (or 0.40 × $300,000) Schedule of Computations Direct materials, 1/1/2007 Direct materials purchased Direct materials available for use Direct materials, 2/26/2007 3= Direct materials used ($294,000 – $180,000) Direct manufacturing labor costs Prime costs Indirect manufacturing costs Manufacturing costs incurred during the current period Add work in process, 1/1/2007 Manufacturing costs to account for Deduct work in process, 2/26/2007 2= Cost of goods manufactured Add finished goods, 1/1/2007 Cost of goods available for sale (given) Deduct finished goods, 2/26/2007 1= Cost of goods sold (80% of $500,000)
$ 16,000 160,000 176,000 62,000 114,000 180,000 294,000 120,000 414,000 34,000 448,000 28,000 420,000 30,000 450,000 50,000 $400,000
Some instructors may wish to place the key amounts in a Work in Process T-account. This problem can be used to introduce students to the flow of costs through the general ledger (amounts in thousands): Work in Process BI 34 DM used 114 COGM 420 DL 180 OH 120 To account for 448 EI
28
BI ------->
Cost of Finished Goods Goods Sold 30 420 COGS 400 ---->400
Available for sale EI
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450 50
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(30 min.) Comprehensive problem on unit costs, product costs.
1. If 2 pounds of direct materials are used to make each unit of finished product, 100,000 units × 2 lbs., or 200,000 lbs. were used at $0.70 per pound of direct materials ($140,000 ÷ 200,000 lbs.). (The direct material costs of $140,000 are direct materials used, not purchased.) Therefore, the ending inventory of direct materials is 2,000 lbs. × $0.70 = $1,400. 2. Direct materials costs Direct manufacturing labor costs Plant energy costs Indirect manufacturing labor costs Other indirect manufacturing costs Cost of goods manufactured
Manufacturing Costs for 100,000 units Variable Fixed Total $140,000 $ – $140,000 30,000 – 30,000 5,000 – 5,000 10,000 16,000 26,000 24,000 32,000 8,000 $40,000 $233,000 $193,000
Average unit manufacturing cost:
$233,000 ÷ 100,000 units = $2.33 per unit $20,970 (given) = $2.33 per unit = 9,000 units
Finished goods inventory in units:
3.
Units sold in 2007 = Beginning inventory + Production – Ending inventory = 0 + 100,000 – 9,000 = 91,000 units Selling price in 2007 = $436,800 ÷ 91,000 = $4.80 per unit
4. Revenues (91,000 units sold × $4.80) Cost of units sold: Beginning finished goods, Jan. 1, 2007 Cost of goods manufactured Cost of goods available for sale Ending finished goods, Dec. 31, 2007 Gross margin Operating costs: Marketing, distribution, and customer-service costs Administrative costs Operating income
$436,800 $
0 233,000 233,000 20,970
162,850 50,000
212,030 224,770
212,850 $ 11,920
Note: Although not required, the full set of unit variable costs is: Direct materials cost Direct manufacturing labor cost Plant energy cost Indirect manufacturing labor cost Other indirect manufacturing cost
$1.40 0.30 0.05 0.10 0.08
= $1.93 per unit manufactured
Marketing, distribution, and customer-service costs
$1.35
per unit sold
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(30 min.) Cost analysis, litigation risk, ethics.
1. Reasons for Keely not wanting Nash to include the potential litigation costs include the following: (a) Genuine belief that the product has no risk of future litigation. Note that she asserts “she has total confidence in her medical research team.” (b) Concern that the uncertainties about litigation are sufficiently high to make any numerical estimate “meaningless.” (c) Concern that inclusion of future litigation costs would cause the board of directors to vote against the project. Keely may be “overly committed” to the project and wants to avoid showing information that prompts questions she prefers not to be raised. (d) Avoid “smoking gun” memos being included in the project evaluation file. Keely may believe that if subsequent litigation occurs, the plaintiffs will “inappropriately” use a litigation cost line item as “proof” that FY knew the product had health problems that were known to management at the outset. 2.
Unit costs excluding litigation costs Add unit litigation costs Total unit costs Add 20% markup Selling price per unit
$100 110 210 42 $252
Since each treatment is planned to cost patients $300, the new selling price of $252 will drop the doctors’ margin to only $48 (16%) from the planned margin of $180 (60%) based on FY’s originally intended selling price of $120. This would probably result in the doctors not having much incentive to promote the product. In fact, it may be quite possible that the doctors may not attempt to prescribe the treatment at such low margin because of their own exposure to liability. 3.
Doctor’s fee Doctor’s minimum gross margin per treatment (40% × 300) Doctor’s maximum cost per treatment
$300 (120) 180
FY’s maximum selling price per unit = FY’s maximum total cost = 180/1.2 = FY’s per unit purchase cost = FY’s maximum per treatment insurance cost =
180 150 (100) $ 50
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4. Nash has expressed his concerns to Keely. He should try to negotiate for an insurance fee of no more than $50 per treatment and point out to Keely that at the $180 price, they can still make Enhance attractive to doctors and also profitable for FY. If she still will not let Nash document and present his concerns and possible solutions, then he is in a difficult position. (a) He may be implicated in future litigation, and in particular, he may be accused of withholding damaging evidence. (b) Keely may find ways to portray him as not a “team player” and this may damage his career trajectory and future in the company. (c) He may have serious on-going issues with Keely’s ethical standards. He should talk to her, to her manager/supervisor, and in the worst case, be prepared to resign if his concerns are not heard and documented. This type of problem is likely to occur again and again in the “cosmeceuticals” business.
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(20–25 min.) Finding unknown amounts.
Let G = given, I = inferred Step 1: Use gross margin formula Revenues Cost of goods sold Gross margin
Case 1 $ 32,000 G A 20,700 I $ 11,300 G
Case 2 $31,800 G 20,000 G C $11,800 I
Step 2: Use schedule of cost of goods manufactured formula Direct materials used Direct manufacturing labor costs Indirect manufacturing costs Manufacturing costs incurred Add beginning work in process, 1/1 Total manufacturing costs to account for Deduct ending work in process, 12/31 Cost of goods manufactured
$ 8,000 G 3,000 G 7,000 G 18,000 I 0G 18,000 I 0G $ 18,000 I
$ 12,000 G 5,000 G D 6,500 I 23,500 I 800 G 24,300 I 3,000 G $ 21,300 I
$ 4,000 G 18,000 I 22,000 I B1,300 I $ 20,700 I
$ 4,000 G 21,300 I 25,300 I 5,300 G $ 20,000 G
Step 3: Use cost of goods sold formula Beginning finished goods inventory, 1/1 Cost of goods manufactured Cost of goods available for sale Ending finished goods inventory, 12/31 Cost of goods sold For case 1, do steps 1, 2, and 3 in order. For case 2, do steps 1, 3, and then 2.
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Chapter 2 Video Case The video case can be discussed using only the case writeup in the chapter. Alternatively, instructors can have students view the videotape of the company that is the subject of the case. The videotape can be obtained by contacting your Prentice Hall representative.The case questions challenge students to apply the concepts learned in the chapter to a specific business situation. THREE DOG BAKERY: Understanding Cost Terms 1.
Various cost objects for Three Dog Bakery are: Product: Dog biscuits and treats (125 different kinds) Service: Telephone orders for dogalog sales Project: Investigation of new store locations Customer: PetsMart, the national pet store chain Activity: Development and updating of the e-commerce Web site Department: Finance, Marketing, Sales, Production, Shipping, Receiving, and so on.
2. a.
Cost Item D or I F or V Salary of the production department manager who oversees manufacturing D F Salaries of founders Dan Dye and Mark Beckloff I F Cardboard trays used to package sets of twelve specialty biscuits D V Salary of the graphic designer who prepares the Dogalog Neither* illustrations and layout Annual maintenance service agreement for the shrink-wrap machine D F Wages paid to assembly line workers who mix Snickerpoodle ingredients in batches D V Air conditioning costs for the entire baking commissary D F Cost of flour, eggs, and carob icing for Rollover biscuits D V
b. c. d. e. f. g. h.
*Design costs are not related to production and hence are neither direct nor indirect costs of production.
Three Dog Bakery is a manufacturing company but it is engaged in the manufacturing and merchandising sectors. With respect to manufacturing, it produces baked dog biscuits and treats at the central baking warehouse. Raw ingredients are purchased and converted into finished goods on the assembly line. With respect to merchandising, the company operates retail stores. In addition to baked dog treats, these stores also sell merchandise from other manufacturers (dog bowls, hats, leashes, collars, etc.). Three Dog Bakery does not provide services per se so it is not engaged in the service sector. 3.
4. When Wal-Mart purchases Lick ‘n Crunch cookies for sale in its stores, the purchase is an inventoriable cost. The cost of purchasing the cookies is considered an asset (inventory) on the balance sheet and it only becomes cost of goods sold as a matching expense against revenues when the cookies are sold. Inventoriable costs of Lick ‘n Crunch Cookies include the cost of the cookies plus any incoming freight, insurance, and handling costs for the cookies.
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