Oceanography

Oceanography For the scientific journal, see Oceanography (journal). “Ocean science” redirects here. For the scientific journal, see Ocean Science (journal). Oceanography (compound of the Greek words

Map of the Gulf Stream by Benjamin Franklin, 1769-1770. Courtesy of the NOAA Photo Library.

Thermohaline circulation

ὠκεανός meaning "ocean" and γράφω meaning “write”), also known as oceanology, is the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within: astronomy, biology, chemistry, climatology, geography, geology, hydrology, meteorology and physics. Paleoceanography studies the history of the oceans in the geologic past.

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and gave it its name. Franklin measured water temperatures during several Atlantic crossings and correctly explained the Gulf Stream’s cause. Franklin and Timothy Folger printed the first map of the Gulf Stream in 17691770.[1][2]

History Early history

Humans first acquired knowledge of the waves and currents of the seas and oceans in pre-historic times. Observations on tides were recorded by Aristotle and Strabo. Early exploration of the oceans was primarily for cartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of the animals that fishermen brought up in nets, though depth soundings by lead line were taken.

1799 map of the currents in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, by James Rennell

Information on the currents of the Pacific Ocean was gathered by explorers of the late 18th century, including James Cook and Louis Antoine de Bougainville. James Rennell wrote the first scientific textbooks on oceanograAlthough Juan Ponce de León in 1513 first identified the phy, detailing the current flows of the Atlantic and Indian Gulf Stream, and the current was well-known to mariners, oceans. During a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope Benjamin Franklin made the first scientific study of it in 1777, he mapped “the banks and currents at the Lagul1

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HISTORY

las". He was also the first to understand the nature of the 1871 an expedition to explore world’s oceans and conintermittent current near the Isles of Scilly, (now known duct appropriate scientific investigation. Charles Wyville as Rennell’s Current).[3] Thompson and Sir John Murray launched the Challenger Sir James Clark Ross took the first modern sounding in expedition. The Challenger, leased from the Royal Navy, deep sea in 1840, and Charles Darwin published a pa- was modified for scientific work and equipped with sep[6] per on reefs and the formation of atolls as a result of arate laboratories for natural history and chemistry. the Second voyage of HMS Beagle in 1831-6. Robert Under the scientific supervision of Thomson, Challenger FitzRoy published a four-volume report of the Beagle’s travelled nearly 70,000 nautical miles (130,000 km) surveying and exploring. On her journey circumnavigatthree voyages. In 1841–1842 Edward Forbes undertook [6] dredging in the Aegean Sea that founded marine ecology. ing the globe, 492 deep sea soundings, 133 bottom dredges, 151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temThe first superintendent of the United States Naval Obser- perature observations were taken.[7] Around 4,700 new vatory (1842–1861), Matthew Fontaine Maury devoted species of marine life were discovered. The result was the his time to the study of marine meteorology, navigation, Report Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage and charting prevailing winds and currents. His 1855 of H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-76. Murray, textbook Physical Geography of the Sea was one of the who supervised the publication, described the report as first comprehensive oceanography studies. Many nations “the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet since sent oceanographic observations to Maury at the Naval the celebrated discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth Observatory, where he and his colleagues evaluated the centuries”. He went on to found the academic discipline information and distributed the results worldwide.[4] of oceanography at the University of Edinburgh, which remained the centre for oceanographic research well into the 20th century.[8] Murray was the first to study marine 1.2 Modern oceanography trenches and in particular the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and map the sedimentary deposits in the oceans. He tried to Despite all this, human knowledge of the oceans re- map out the world’s ocean currents based on salinity and mained confined to the topmost few fathoms of the water temperature observations, and was the first to correctly and a small amount of the bottom, mainly in shallow ar- understand the nature of coral reef development. eas. Almost nothing was known of the ocean depths. The Royal Navy's efforts to chart all of the world’s coastlines In the late 19th century, other Western nations also sent in the mid-19th century reinforced the vague idea that out scientific expeditions (as did private individuals and most of the ocean was very deep, although little more was institutions). The first purpose built oceanographic ship, known. As exploration ignited both popular and scien- the Albatros, was built in 1882. In 1893, Fridtjof Nansen tific interest in the polar regions and Africa, so too did allowed his ship, Fram, to be frozen in the Arctic ice. This enabled him to obtain oceanographic, meteorological and the mysteries of the unexplored oceans. astronomical data at a stationary spot over an extended period.

HMS Challenger undertook the first global marine research expedition in 1872.

The seminal event in the founding of the modern science of oceanography was the 1872-76 Challenger expedition. As the first true oceanographic cruise, this expedition laid the groundwork for an entire academic and research discipline.[5] In response to a recommendation from the Royal Society, The British Government announced in

Ocean currents (1911)

Between 1907 and 1911 Otto Krümmel published the Handbuch der Ozeanographie, which became influential in awakening public interest in oceanography.[9] The four-month 1910 North Atlantic expedition headed by John Murray and Johan Hjort was the most ambitious research oceanographic and marine zoological project ever mounted until then, and led to the classic 1912 book The

3 Depths of the Ocean. The first acoustic measurement of sea depth was made in 1914. Between 1925 and 1927 the “Meteor” expedition gathered 70,000 ocean depth measurements using an echo sounder, surveying the Mid-Atlantic ridge. Sverdrup, Johnson and Fleming published The Oceans in 1942,[10] which was a major landmark. The Sea (in three volumes, covering physical oceanography, seawater and geology) edited by M.N. Hill was published in 1962, while Rhodes Fairbridge's Encyclopedia of Oceanography was published in 1966. The Great Global Rift, running along the Mid Atlantic Ridge, was discovered by Maurice Ewing and Bruce Heezen in 1953; in 1954 a mountain range under the Arctic Ocean was found by the Arctic Institute of the USSR. The theory of seafloor spreading was developed in 1960 by Harry Hammond Hess. The Ocean Drilling Program started in 1966. Deep sea vents were discovOceanographic frontal systems on the Southern Hemisphere ered in 1977 by John Corlis and Robert Ballard in the submersible DSV Alvin. In the 1950s, Auguste Piccard invented the bathyscaphe 2 Branches and used the Trieste to investigate the ocean’s depths. The United States nuclear submarine Nautilus made the first The study of oceanography is divided into these four journey under the ice to the North Pole in 1958. In 1962 branches: the FLIP (Floating Instrument Platform), a 355-foot spar buoy, was first deployed. • Biological oceanography, or marine biology, investiFrom the 1970s, there has been much emphasis on the gates the ecology of marine organisms in the context application of large scale computers to oceanography to of the physical, chemical, and geological characterallow numerical predictions of ocean conditions and as istics of their ocean environment and the biology of a part of overall environmental change prediction. An individual marine organisms. oceanographic buoy array was established in the Pacific • Chemical oceanography, or marine chemistry, is to allow prediction of El Niño events. the study of the chemistry of the ocean and its 1990 saw the start of the World Ocean Circulation Exchemica constraint programming is a programming periment (WOCE) which continued until 2002. Geosat paradigm wherein relations between variables are seafloor mapping data became available in 1995. stated in the form of constraints. l interaction with In recent years studies advanced particular knowledge on the atmosphere. ocean acidification, ocean heat content, ocean currents, • Geological oceanography, or marine geology, is the the El Niño phenomenon, mapping of methane hydrate study of the geology of the ocean floor including deposits, the carbon cycle, coastal erosion, weathering plate tectonics and paleoceanography. and climate feedbacks in regards to climate change interactions. • Physical oceanography, or marine physics, studStudy of the oceans is linked to understanding global ies the ocean’s physical attributes including climate changes, potential global warming and related temperature-salinity structure, mixing, surface biosphere concerns. The atmosphere and ocean are waves, internal waves, surface tides, internal tides, linked because of evaporation and precipitation as well and currents. as thermal flux (and solar insolation). Wind stress is a major driver of ocean currents while the ocean is a sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide. All these factors relate 3 Ocean acidification to the ocean’s biogeochemical setup. Main article: Ocean acidification Ocean acidification describes the decrease in ocean pH that is caused by anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions into the atmosphere.[11] Seawater is slightly

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alkaline and had a preindustrial pH of about 8.2. More recently, anthropogenic activities have steadily increased the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere; about 30– 40% of the added CO2 is absorbed by the oceans, forming carbonic acid and lowering the pH (now below 8.1[12] ) through ocean acidification.[13][14][15] The pH is expected to reach 7.7 by the year 2100.[16] An important element for the skeletons of marine animals is calcium, but calcium carbonate becomes more soluble with pressure, so carbonate shells and skeletons dissolve below the carbonate compensation depth.[17] Cal- Oceans of Climate Change NASA cium carbonate becomes more soluble at lower pH, so ocean acidification is likely to affect marine organisms with calcareous shells, such as oysters, clams, sea urchins Ocean warming accounts for 90% of the energy accumuand corals,[18][19] and the carbonate compensation depth lation from global warming between 1971 and 2010.[23] will rise closer to the sea surface. Affected planktonic organisms will include pteropods, coccolithophorids and foraminifera, all important in the food chain. In trop- 6 Oceanographic institutions ical regions, corals are likely to be severely affected as they become less able to build their calcium carbonate skeletons,[20] in turn adversely impacting other reef dwellers.[16] The current rate of ocean chemistry change seems to be unprecedented in Earth’s geological history, making it unclear how well marine ecosystems will adapt to the shifting conditions of the near future.[21] Of particular concern is the manner in which the combination of acidification with the expected additional stressors of higher temperatures and lower oxygen levels will impact the seas.[22] Oceanographic Museum

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Ocean currents

Further information: Ocean current Since the early ocean expeditions in oceanography, a major interest was the study of the ocean currents and temperature measurements. The tides, the Coriolis effect, changes in direction and strength of wind, salinity and temperature are the main factors determining ocean currents. The thermohaline circulation (THC) thermo- referring to temperature and -haline referring to salt content connects 4 of 5 ocean basins and is primarily dependent on the density of sea water. Ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream are wind-driven surface currents.

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Ocean heat content

Further information: Oceanic heat content Oceanic heat content (OHC) refers to the heat stored in the ocean. The changes in the ocean heat play an important role in sea level rise, because of thermal expansion.

See also: List of oceanographic institutions and programs The first international organization of oceanography was created in 1902 as the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. In 1903 the Scripps Institution of Oceanography was founded, followed by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in 1930, Virginia Institute of Marine Science in 1938, and later the LamontDoherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University, and the School of Oceanography at University of Washington. In Britain, the National Oceanography Centre (an institute of the Natural Environment Research Council) is the successor to the UK’s Institute of Oceanographic Sciences. In Australia, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research (CMAR), is a leading centre. In 1921 the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB) was formed in Monaco.

7 Related disciplines • Biogeochemistry • Biogeography

5 • Climatology • Coastal geography • Environmental science • Geophysics • Glaciology • Hydrography • Hydrology • Limnology • Meteorology • MetOcean

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[5] Then and Now: The HMS Challenger Expedition and the 'Mountains in the Sea' Expedition, Ocean Explorer website (NOAA), accessed 2 January 2012 [6] Rice, A. L. (1999). “The Challenger Expedition”. Understanding the Oceans: Marine Science in the Wake of HMS Challenger. Routledge. pp. 27–48. ISBN 978-185728-705-9. [7] Oceanography: an introduction to the marine environment (Peter K. Weyl, 1970), p. 49 [8] “Sir John Murray (1841-1914) - Founder Of Modern Oceanography”. Science and Engineering at The University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 7 November 2013.

• Marine science

[9] Otto Krümmel (1907). [Online Abstract “Handbuch der Ozeanographie"] Check |url= value (help). J. Engelhorn.

See also

[10] Sverdrup, Harald Ulrik; Johnson, Martin Wiggo; Fleming, Richard H. (1942). The Oceans, Their Physics, Chemistry, and General Biology. New York: Prentice-Hall.

• Anoxic event – Anoxic sea water • Argo (oceanography) • Bathymetric chart • Ecological Forecasting • List of ocean circulation models • List of seas • List of submarine topographical features • Marine archaeology • Marine current power • Marine engineering • Ocean colonization • Ocean engineering • Oceans Act of 2000 • Sea level • Sea level rise

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[4] Williams, Frances L. Matthew Fontaine Maury, Scientist of the Sea. (1969) ISBN 0-8135-0433-3

References

[1] 1785: Benjamin Franklin’s 'Sundry Maritime Observations’ [2] Wilkinson, Jerry. History of the Gulf Stream 1 January 2008 [3] Lee, Sidney, ed. (1896). "Rennell, James". Dictionary of National Biography. 48. London: Smith, Elder & Co.

[11] Caldeira, K.; Wickett, M. E. (2003). “Anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH” (PDF). Nature. 425 (6956): 365–365. Bibcode:2001AGUFMOS11C0385C. doi:10.1038/425365a. PMID 14508477. [12] “Ocean Acidity”. U.S. EPA climate change web site. EPA. 13 September 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2013. External link in |work= (help) [13] Feely, R. A.; et al. (July 2004). “Impact of Anthropogenic CO2 on the CaCO3 System in the Oceans”. Science. 305 (5682): 362–366. Bibcode:2004Sci...305..362F. doi:10.1126/science.1097329. PMID 15256664. [14] Zeebe, R. E.; Zachos, J. C.; Caldeira, K.; Tyrrell, T. (4 July 2008). “OCEANS: Carbon Emissions and Acidification”. Science. 321 (5885): 51–52. doi:10.1126/science.1159124. PMID 18599765. [15] Gattuso, J.-P.; Hansson, L. (15 September 2011). Ocean Acidification. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19959109-1. OCLC 730413873. [16] “Ocean acidification”. Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population & Communities: Australian Antarctic Division. 28 September 2007. Retrieved 17 April 2013. [17] Pinet, Paul R. (1996). Invitation to Oceanography. West Publishing Company. pp. 126, 134–135. ISBN 978-0314-06339-7. [18] “What is Ocean Acidification?". NOAA PMEL Carbon Program. Retrieved 15 September 2013. [19] Orr, James C.; et al. (2005). “Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms” (PDF). Nature. 437 (7059): 681–686. Bibcode:2005Natur.437..681O. doi:10.1038/nature04095. PMID 16193043. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2008.

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[20] Cohen, A.; Holcomb, M. (2009). “Why Corals Care About Ocean Acidification: Uncovering the Mechanism” (PDF). Oceanography. 24 (4): 118–127. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2009.102. [21] Hönisch, Bärbel; Ridgwell, Andy; Schmidt, Daniela N.; Thomas, E.; et al. (2012). “The Geological Record of Ocean Acidification”. Science. 335 (6072): 1058–1063. Bibcode:2012Sci...335.1058H. doi:10.1126/science.1208277. PMID 22383840. [22] Gruber, N. (18 April 2011). “Warming up, turning sour, losing breath: ocean biogeochemistry under global change”. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 369 (1943): 1980–96. Bibcode:2011RSPTA.369.1980G. doi:10.1098/rsta.2011.0003. [23] IPCC AR5 WG1 (2013). PDF “Summary for policymakers” Check |url= value (help) (PDF).

• Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (2005) Oceanographers and the Cold War: Disciples of Marine Science. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-984827 • Steele, J., K. Turekian and S. Thorpe. (2001). Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences. San Diego: Academic Press. (6 vols.) ISBN 0-12-227430-X • Sverdrup, Keith A., Duxbury, Alyn C., Duxbury, Alison B. (2006). Fundamentals of Oceanography, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-282678-9 • Lang, Michael A., Ian G. Macintyre, and Klaus Rützler, eds. Proceedings of the Smithsonian Marine Science Symposium. Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences, no. 38. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press (2009) • Boling Guo, Daiwen Huang. Infinite-Dimensional Dynamical Systems in Atmospheric and Oceanic Science, 2014, World Scientific Publishing, ISBN 978981-4590-37-2. Sample Chapter

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External links

• NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory - Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PO.DAAC). A data center responsible for archiving and distributing data about the physical state of the ocean. • Scripps Institution of Oceanography. One of the world’s oldest, largest, and most important centers for ocean and Earth science research, education, and public service. • Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI). One of the world’s largest private, non-profit ocean research, engineering and education organizations.

EXTERNAL LINKS

• British Oceanographic Data Centre. A source of oceanographic data and information. • NOAA Ocean and Weather Data Navigator. Plot and download ocean data. • Freeview Video 'Voyage to the Bottom of the Deep Deep Sea' Oceanography Programme by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/Open University. • Atlas of Spanish Oceanography by InvestigAdHoc. • Glossary of Physical Oceanography and Related Disciplines by Steven K. Baum, Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University • Barcelona-Ocean.com Inspiring Education in Marine Sciences

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• File:Gulf_stream_map.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Gulf_stream_map.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/library/readings/gulf/media/gulf_bf.html Original artist: Benjamin Franklin • File:Helmet_logo_for_Underwater_Diving_portal.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Helmet_logo_ for_Underwater_Diving_portal.png License: Public domain Contributors: This file was derived from Kask-nurka.jpg: Original artist: Kask-nurka.jpg: User:Julo • File:Land_ocean_ice_cloud_hires.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Land_ocean_ice_cloud_hires. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Musée_Océanographique_de_Monaco.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Mus%C3%A9e_ Oc%C3%A9anographique_de_Monaco.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Stanimir Stoyanov • File:Ocean_currents_1911.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Ocean_currents_1911.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Oceans_of_Climate_Change.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Oceans_of_Climate_Change. ogv License: Public domain Contributors: http://climate.nasa.gov/climate_reel/OceansClimateChange640360 Original artist: NASA • File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: OpenClipart Original artist: OpenClipart • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Rennel_map_1799.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Rennel_map_1799.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_ Apollo_17.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/115334main_image_feature_329_ys_full.jpg Original artist: NASA/Apollo 17 crew; taken by either Harrison Schmitt or Ron Evans • File:Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Thermohaline_Circulation_2. png License: Public domain Contributors: NASA Earth Observatory Original artist: Robert Simmon, NASA. Minor modifications by Robert A. Rohde also released to the public domain • File:Upwelling.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Upwelling.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • File:Upwelling.jpg Original artist: Lichtspiel • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Working_Diver_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Working_Diver_01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID 070104-N-3093M-016 (next). This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: Mass Communication Specialist Senior Chief Andrew McKaskle

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